Confucian Ethics and Legalists Authority in Shaping of Chinese History

Discussion Politics and ethics are concepts that are identical according to the teachings of Confucianism. These aspects strongly contrast legalism. Confucianism demands politics to be considered on ethical convictions and not laws. It bases ethical convictions on goodness of human nature (Mou 112).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Confucian Ethics and Legalists Authority in Shaping of Chinese History specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More With Mencius, Confucianism believes in innate goodness of man. Thus, it considers man as an emotional being. This kind of emotion forms the basis of morality. Confucianism values education as an avenue of refining emotionality as it deteriorates into an ego-centric attitude. Chinese civilization was ethically formed by Confucianism (Zhang 67). For more than two millennia, this remained Chinese ethical foundation. This paper discusses Confucian ethics and legalist’s authority in shaping Chinese history and explores: the analects of Confucius and how they would serve as primary moral and ethical code in shaping the intellectual period of the Zhou dynasty; how Mencius writings constituted an important development in the expansion of Confucian ethics and aiding moral argument of human goodness; and how Shang Yang’s writings would form the foundation for the Qin dynasty political program. Analects of Confucius in Shaping the Zhou Dynasty Analects Confucius contain conversations with disciples. In these conversations, Confucius adopts a detached view of Heaven. He once commended, â€Å"You are unable to serve man,† ‘how then can you hope to serve the spirits? While you do not know life, how can you know about death?† (Hardy 5). Here, Confucius interest in philosophy was clearly political and ethical. His construct of the universe was such that if human beings behave harmoniously in accordance with its purposes, their own affairs would prosper. Confucius was much concerned with human behaviour. Behaving in conformity with the Dao (cosmos) was the key to proper behaviour (Hardy 5). Confucius basic assumption was that all human beings had their own Dao, depending on their individual roles in life, and it was their duty to follow it. Confucius strongly felt that people will naturally follow example of leaders who lived according to high ethical standards. In terms of shaping moral sensibilities, Confucius taught the significance of ritual and music. Additionally, he advocated benevolent hierarchical social order (Hardy 5). The ruler also had his own Dao. The ruler ignored his Dao at his own peril, for to do so could signify the loss of heaven mandate (Hubbard 22).Advertising Looking for essay on asian? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Confucius interpretation of the Dao contained two basic elements; one was the concept of duty. Human beings had the responsibilit y to subordinate their own interest and aspirations to the greater need of others. This assumes that each person works hard to accomplish his or her assigned destiny. In turn, this accelerates prosperity in society. Therefore, the ruler in this respect has to set a good example. The beneficial effect would be felt throughout society if he conforms in his kingly ways (Perry 40). Secondly, the idea of humanity was another important element. This involved a sense of compassion and empathy for other people. Confucius supported rule by merit concept as stated in the rites of Zhou (Hardy 5). Confucius philosophical thinking was revolutionary; many of his ideas were forward looking rather than backward. His most remarkable political thinking was that government should be open to all men of superior quality, not restricted to those of noble birth. Noting one of Confucius disciples in the analects: â€Å"The master said, by nature, men are nearly alike; by practice, they get to be wide a pa rt†, through the analects, Confucius ideas were passed to the next generation (Mou 108). This had a strong effect on political thinkers of china of the late Zhou era. This period was characterized by an existing system that was in disarray and exposed to serious question. The legal thought of the Chinese has always varied between legalism and Confucianism school of thoughts. Legalists believe that humans should be governed by law, that is, a set of external laws and penalties that are coercive. Confucians on the other hand, believe in the inherent good nature of humans and thus can learn to morally govern itself internally. Confucianism took effect during the chaotic period in Chinese history; marked with the disintegration of the Zhou dynasty and Chinese Civil War and social crisis (Mou 115). The analects of Confucianism collected would later play primary moral and ethical role in informing the intellectual period of the Zhou dynasty. In these collected analects (Mou 108).Adv ertising We will write a custom essay sample on Confucian Ethics and Legalists Authority in Shaping of Chinese History specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Confucius espouses conservative government that admired political and social environment of the Zhou dynasty. Infact, the early Chinese social norms were effectively institutionalized by traditional Confucianism. Confucius viewed society not just as an organization that promotes human survival, rather as a mode through which man becomes a human being. Laws were believed to regulate the ego within each individual. In sum, Confucianism emphasized the practice of traditional forms over inborn human nature (Mou 116). The view of collected analects is that inherent imperfections in human beings did not pose problems for a tradition in good order. The Zhou dynasty was such a tradition. Mencius and the Expansion of Confucian Ethics Mencius writings formed a significant growth in expansio n of Confucian ethics and made tremendous contribution to human goodness in moral argument (Buchanan 75). Mencius emphasized the human side of Confucian thoughts. He argued that human beings were good by nature and therefore could be shown their civil responsibilities by example. Mencius also emphasized the duty of compassionate leadership by rulers when he stated: â€Å"It was because Chieh and Chou lost the people that they lost the empire, and it was because they lost the hearts of the people that they lost the people. Here is the way to win the empire, win the people and you win the empire. Here is the way to win the people, win their hearts and you win the people. Here is the way to win their hearts, give them and share with them what they like, and do not do to them what they don’t like. The people turn to a human ruler as water flows downward or beasts take to wilderness† (Mencius 36). Significantly, Mencius made an impact on the shaping of the Zhou dynastic his tory and culture. The Zhou dynasty advocated the concept of heavenly mandate where people had the moral right to seek removal of leaders who do not perform as expected, even through violent means (Mencius 38). This concept was duly promoted by Mencius. Mencius encouraged benevolence and righteousness in a leader. He encouraged leaders to share worries and aspirations of the people and determine policies appropriate for them to live and work in peace and contentment (Buchanan 76). Mencius maintained the significance of personal virtues in the role of leadership. He postulated benevolence for instance to result honour and cruelty to cause disgrace to society (Mencius 36). Therefore, Mencius encouraged individuals in authority to have an ethical role to behave in people’s best interest (Buchanan 74).Advertising Looking for essay on asian? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Mencius had a strong notion of the kind of influence bestowed upon people. He explained why a king fails to be a kind leader, and why a transformation of the ruler’s attitude would be positive for all subjects. Mencius stated; â€Å"How virtuous must a man be before he can become a true king? He becomes a true king by bringing peace to the people. This is something no one can stop. Can someone like me bring peace to the people? Yes. How do you know that I can? All you have to do is take this very heart here and apply it to what is over there. Hence one who extends his bounty can bring peace to the Four Seas; one who does not cannot bring peace even to his own family† (Xu 2). In summary, Mencius maintained that rulers had to practice virtue in order for them to sustain their positions in authority. He duly encouraged the heavenly mandate concept; experienced in the earlier period in the Zhou dynasty. This meant that people had moral obligations to remove leaders in aut hority who do not deliver to their expectations, even through force (Xu 3). Shang Yang’s Foundation for Qin Dynasties Political Program Shang Yang promoted the philosophy of legalism in ancient China. He took issue with the view of Mencius and other Confucian thinkers that human nature was essentially good. By nature, Shang Yang argued that human beings were evil and will do the correct things only by forced laws and harsh punishments. Shang Yang and other legalist thinkers discarded Confucian view that government by superior individuals could correct societal problems and instead argued for impersonal laws system. Additionally, Shang Yang and other legalists differed with Confucian view that heaven has a moral core. He totally believed that only strict action by state could lead to social order. Common people could best be motivated to serve the leadership interest for fear of harsh penalty, more than material promise reward. Since he believed on the corrupt human nature, he could not trust officials to carry out their duties in efficient and equitable manner. He believed that only a strong leader could organize a society that is orderly. Through his writings, Shang Yang gave the foundation for Qin dynasties political program. This involved providing full authority to state and ruler against its subjects (Hardy 6). Shang Yang formulated the legalist foundation of the Qin dynasty. This foundation was a technique to control, more than a mere philosophy upon which to organize a government that is stable. Qin dynastic program was based on the urges to fear of retribution and desire for reward (Bedeski 80). Accordingly, by understanding these motivations and exercising rigorous laws, a leader is able to subordinate his subjects, ministers and even his own family to serving him and the state. Shang Yang’s writings provided the state and the leader full authority over and against its subjects. Wealth, tranquillity and dynastic glory were the goal of st ate. However, this was at the expense of thought, innovation, freedom, and religion. Shang Yang viewed the world as a totalitarian state, and legalism acted as a technique for its maintenance. Legalism advocates for population management placing people as the major source of state power (Bedeski 81). Shang Yang explores the scope of Qin political knowledge as a product of centuries of reflection of war. This involved alliances, negotiations, and strategies. Qin political knowledge was necessitated by an environment where war and preparation for war were necessary. Understandably, this was derived from authority as command and administration as mobilization. Qin later resorted to the political knowledge of a garrison state at peace with all except those who break law and dissidents. The later were dealt with as state enemies. As Qin’s political knowledge was used in the building of Chinese state, its enforcement was restricted to succeeding in consolidating the hegemony of the dynasty. It completely failed to confer legitimacy in the long term. The strict laws imposed obedience but not reciprocal obligation on the governed. Conclusion In sum, Chinese legal system continues to follow Confucianism in a fundamental manner. For instance, the country continues to adopt Confucian concern on morality, addressing the legal system where the law is only an item of executing state policies. Confucianism demands politics to be based on ethical values and laws only as advocated by legalists. Legalist thinkers such as Shang Yang believe that men should be governed by coercive laws and reprimands (penalties). Confucians thinkers such as Mencius, in contrast believed that the nature of human beings is good and can learn to internally govern itself through moral suasion by traditional rites (Perry 38). As Confucian philosophers earned political patronage in china and adopted in Chinese political governance, legalists’ penal sanctions were reduced to items applied in enforcing Confucian morality (Mou 113). Confucianism preserved the social order and its ideals were adopted in Chinese traditional civilization. This took root during the Zhou dynasty. Confucianism aided in shaping the moral habits of the Zhou leaders’ dynasty and, by the example of the leaders, their subjects (Hubbard 22). Work Cited Bedeski, Robert. Human Security and the Chinese State. London: Taylor and Francis, 2007. Buchanan, Allen. States, Nations and Borders. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Hubbard, Hatfield J. An Education classroom Guide to Americas Religious Beliefs. New York: Greenwood Publishing, 2007. Hardy, Kinney A. The Establishment of the Han Empire and Imperial China. New York: Greenwood Publishing, 2005. Mencius. Mencius. London; Penguin Books, 2004. Mou, Bo. History of Chinese Philosophy. London: Taylor and Francis, 2008. Perry. Chinese Conceptions of Rights. Perspectives on Politics, 2008, 6(1), 37-57. Xu, Zhang B. Mencius: A Benevolent S aint for Years. Beijing: Intercontinental Press. Zhang. Five Thousand Years of Chinese Nation. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 2007. This essay on Confucian Ethics and Legalists Authority in Shaping of Chinese History was written and submitted by user Milania Riddle to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Voting Behavior essays

Voting Behavior essays In the 2000 presidential election the public looked at each of the candidates personal traits and their issues in order for them to decide, who they thought would be the best person to be the President of the United States of America. Most voters said that they were most concerned with the candidates issues, however when it came right down to it the voters were most concerned with the candidates personal traits. Thus they based their votes on which candidate they liked better based on their personal traits. One personal trait that they based their vote on was the candidate's competence. For most people, they stuck with the candidate that was representing the party that they belonged to. However, the Independent party voted for George W. Bush believing that he was the candidate that had the most competence. Thus, the overall public believed that Bush had the competence than Gore. The media played an important role in the way that the public saw the candidates. The media in the 2000 presidential election campaign had a big influence on the way in which the candidates were portrayed, especially when it came to their issues and personal traits. One particular trait that the public focused on was that of the candidate's competence. A reason that the public paid more attention to what was being said about each candidate was that there was more televised coverage than there has been before. The public believed that a certain candidate was receiving the most biased coverage against him, and that candidate happened to be Bush, with Gore in second place, Nader in third, and Buchanan in fourth. During a survey done before the election there was a question, which asked the public which of these candidates do you think would have the best chance of winning the election in November? The candidate that had the most votes was in fact Bush. Another reason for the media having had such a big influence on the election was that the press...

Advertisment Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

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Managing Intelligence Activities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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Decrease Clabsi in the Nicu Essay Example for Free

Decrease Clabsi in the Nicu Essay The purpose of this initiative is to decrease and/or eliminate central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI) in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) at Aurora Bay Care Medical Center. Hospital acquired infections, including CLABSI, is a major cause of mortality, prolonged hospitalization, and extra costs for NICU patients (Stevens Schulman, 2012). The goal of this initiative is to decrease CLABSI by 75% by reducing the number of days lines are in and standardizing the insertion process and line maintenance. CLABSI is preventable and increases the risk of neurodevelopmental impairment in very low birth weight infants. It is estimated that up to 70% of hospital acquired infections are caused by CLABSI in preterm infants (Stevens Schulman, 2012). It is also estimated that 41,000 CLABSI occur in United States hospitals every year (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2012). 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Each member must play an active role in the investigation process as well as the agreed-upon changes. There are multiple benefits to the proposed initiative. Hospital acquired infections will be reduced which means there will be a reduction in harm to the patients. This will mean a  major cost savings to Aurora Bay Care Medical Center because there will not be that additional cost of treating a preventable infection. Staff will be collaborating together for the greater good of the NICU. The best practices that come out of the initiative can be shared with other NICUs to help decrease CLABSI across all hospitals. The cost of the initiative will be minimal compared to the cost of treating a CLABSI. On top of the morbidity and mortality resulting from the infection, the financial costs are significant. Many of these costs are no longer covered by insurance because the infection was a result of the hospital stay. The CDC recently estimated the cost of a CLABSI to be $29,156 per case with an estimated mortality of 12-25% (Horan, 2010). The largest cost that will incur because of this initiative will be staffing costs. The team of approximately 10 people will get paid for their time on the team that will meet every other week for an undetermined amount of time, not to exceed 3 months. Any time spent on research will need to be reimbursed. The entire staff will need to be trained on the new processes before they are rolled out. They will be required to do hands on training as well as complete a competency designed by the team. There will not be an increase in the cost of supplies, as the NICU has all the supplies necessary at this time. If it is determined they need different supplies, it will be addressed at that time. Data definitions and the procedures used for collection will be determined by the team at the first meeting. The data will be tracked from the first day the team meets throughout the course of the quality initiative. The original goal will be to decrease CLABSI by 75% in the first year. A detailed analysis must be performed on the processes that were used to implement and maintain evidence-based practices. Each infection must have an investigational analysis completed. The data that is collected will be completely confidential so as to not break the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) Privacy Rules. In conclusion, the purpose of this initiative is to reduce CLABSI by at least 75% in the NICU at Aurora Bay Care Medical Center. This will be accomplished through training and education to the doctors, nurses, any staff that comes into contact with the infants, and the parents. This is a win-win for both the patients as well as the hospital because it will reduce morbidities and mortalities caused by the preventable infection as well as reduce costs significantly for the  hospital. References Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012). Central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) event. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nhsn/pdfs/pscmanual/4psc_clabscurrent.pdf Horan, T. C. (2010). Central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) criteria and case studies. Retrieved from http://www.azdhs.gov/phs/oids/hai/documents/NHSN_Workshop1_CLABSI_Criteria_Studies.pdf Stevens, T. P., Schulman, J. (2012). Evidence-based approach to preventing central line-associated blood stream infection in the NICU. Acta Paeditrica, 11-16. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2011.02547.x

Electronic Communication and the Negative Impact of Miscommunication Es

Electronic communications, improve efficiency and productivity, but poorly written emails can cause internal strife, low morale, and loss of clients. Effective written communication will enhance internal communications as well as external communications. The ability to write effectively is a core skill that all employees, no matter what their title is, should master. If the content of an email is unclear, grammatically incorrect or is full of typos, the email will cause misunderstandings and the possible loss of business. A chain reaction of emails or letters will occur, questioning the next course of action and clients will undoubtedly believe that we will treat them with the same carelessness we took in creating that correspondence. Case in point, a letter was recently sent to one of our clients misquoting our fees, a second letter was sent to the client correcting the fee, but was addressed to the wrong person. We have since lost this client. Jonathan Hershberg, president of Opus Associates, a communications training developer based in New York, states, "If I get an e-mail that's full of errors and I know nothing else about you," Hershberg says, "there's no reason for me not to think you'll handle my business in the same way you handled that writing.† (Moerke, A, 2004) We have seen an example of this kind of writing. A benefit distribution memo was created for the wife of a deceased participant. The salutation of the letter addressed the deceased, not the wife. Correspondences regarding death benefits require special attention. Correspondence should never be addresses to the deceased. All writers should use the method of prewriting, brainstorming, writing and organizing, revising for style, and proofreading to produce memos, letters, emails, and reports The suggested percentage of time spent on each writing step is as follows: (Jaderstrom, Miller, and Office Pro June 2004)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Prewriting 12.5%   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Brainstorming 25.0%   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Writing and organizing 25.0%   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Revising for style 25.0%   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Proofreading 12.5%   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Emails are less formal then letters or memorandums; and the authors of emails tend to abbreviate words and use slang to get his or her meaning across quickly. This may be acceptable for communication inside the company, but it will confuse external clients. John Patrick, President of Attitud... ...ding and spellchecking the content before sending to our internal or external clients. The clients will notice the change in the professionalism of our writing. Overall, the outcome can only benefit the company and its employees. References Crainer, Stuart, Dearlove, Des, Across the Board (2004) Making yourself Understood – The New Language of Business, 41, Issue 3, Retrieved September 28, 2004 from the EBSCOhost database Jaderstrom, Susan, Miller, Joanne, Office Pro (2004) - Writing with Purpose Business Source Premier , 64, Issue 5 Retrieved September 28, 2004 from the EBSCOhost database Moerke, Amy, (2004) Business Writing Brushup Sales & Marketing Management, 156, Issue 5 Retrieved September 28, 2004 from the EBSCOhost database Shea, Gordon F, Training & Development, (1992) A Case for Clear Writing, 46 Issue 1, p63, Retrieved September 28, 2004 from the EBSCOhost database Hudson Valley Business Journal (2001) Email underlines need for better business writing skills,. 11, Issue 26 Retrieved September 28, 2004 from the EBSCOhost database Reed Business Information Ltd. Personnel Today, (2004), p18, 2p Retrieved September 28, 2004 from the EBSCOhost database

Sociological Perpestives in Health and Social Care

In this assignment I am going to write a report explaining the patterns and trends of health and illness in three social groups: gender, ethnicity and social class. I am also going to explain the pattern and trends of health and illness which looks at measurement of health, morbidity rates, mortality rates, disease incidence, disease prevalence and health surveillance. Measurements of health Health is generally measured in negative terms, such as the level of disease and the number of deaths within a population, rather than by analysis of positive indicators, such as the presence of health.Epidemiology is the study of disease origins or cause and how much information about the number of people within a population. Epidemiological data provides valuable information about the number of people a population that are affected by ill health, who die as a result of particular health problems and which groups of individuals are most at risk of developing and dying from particular types of il lness or disease. This information is used to identify and plan appropriate health and social care services as well as health-promotion activities.The most commonly used indicators are morbidity (presence of illness or disease) and mortality (death). (Eleanor Landridge, 2007) Morbidity rates Morbidity is difficult to measure as the information is gathered from a range of different sources. Data is collected by the government as well as the NHS and local authority social services departments through direct surveys of the population such as specific health surveys, and as a result of administrative processes, for example, when an individual visits a GP or A&E department or has an assessment of needs.Some diseases are required to be reported, for example cancers and infectious diseases and so data is collected via this process. The problem with this information is that to some extent it reflects services that are available rather than the true picture of disease incidence. Individuals have to also express their needs through actively seeking medical or social care services. (Eleanor Landridge, 2007) The general household survey is a continuous government population survey this includes questions about peoples experience of llness both acute and chronic within the two weeks prior to the person completing the survey. The individual GHS 2002 interview includes questions regarding health and the use of health services; this provides information about the individual’s view of their health. The measurement of working days lost due to sickness can also provide a measure of morbidity for those who are in paid employment. As a measure, it is limited as it only relates to paid employment and this excludes many women who are at home caring for children or older people as well as those who are retired and unable to work through disability. Eleanor Landridge, 2007) Mortality rates The Office for national statistics is responsible for collecting and analysing data colle cted from a range of sources including the ten year national population census, the GHS and specific health information gathered through, for example, deaths and disease incidence reporting undertaken by GP’s and strategic health authorities. Mortality rates can be compared internationally because most countries hold similar information. Mortality rate are expressed in several different ways.A basis measurement is to express mortality as a number of deaths per 100 per year. However this does not allow the diversity of age within the population which varies over time and between geographical areas. For example, mortality rates in the south-east of England will appear high as there are a high percentage of older people living there. The standardised mortality ration (SMR) is the method used to compare mortality levels across different years or for different sub-populations within the same year.The SMR is useful because it can be used to identify and for comparisons. Infant mort ality rate (IMR) are also used as a measurement of health as this provides information about the number of deaths that occur in the first year of life per 1000 live births per year. The IMR is strongly associated with adult mortality rates as it is sensitive to changes in preventive medicine and improvements in health services. Gender, age, social class and cause of death are variables that can be assessed through analysis of the mortality rates. Eleanor Landridge, 2007) Disease incidence & prevalence Within epidemiology the term ‘disease incidence’ is the proportion of a group that is free of a condition but who develop it over a given period of time, such as a day, week, month, year or decade. It measures the number of new cases that occur in the population. The incidence of a disease will depends on the cause of the disease, for example, why it occurs.There might be an infectious agent which requires certain conditions for transmission, or it may be that the disease occurs due to some genetic factor, with or without certain predisposing environmental conditions. The prevalence of a disease depends not only on the incidence (how often new cases occur in a particular group of people), but also on the course of the disease, whether it can be treated, how long it would last and if people can die as a result of it.Prevalence studies therefore provide a snapshot of how many people in the given population have the specific disease being measured at a given point in time. Disease incidence and prevalence are related but measure different aspects of disease within the population. (Kelly Davis, 2010) Health surveillance Health surveillance is generally related to occupational health screening methods used to identify occupational health hazards for workers. The description has been widened to include the range of routine health screening strategies and methods which begin before birth and throughout an individuals life.Health surveillance is increasingly available, such as screening for specific cancers (breast, cervical, prostate), diabetes, high blood pressure, raised blood cholesterol levels and bone density. All of these are aimed at early detection of treatable conditions and may be targeted at specific ‘at risk’ groups within the population. In this course of carrying out this surveillance, information about the incidence and prevalence will be gathered as many of these treatable conditions may be without symptoms and so not alert the individual to the presence of a problem. Kelly Davis, 2010) 158,900 males and 156,300 females were newly diagnosed with cancer each year in the UK during 2007–09, equivalent to incidence rates of 427 per 100,000 males and 371 per 100,000 females Around 81,600 males and 74,600 females died from cancer in each of those years in the UK, corresponding to mortality rates of 209 per 100,000 males and 151 per 100,000 females Breast cancer had the highest incidence rate in females (1 24 cases per 100,000 females) and prostate cancer had the highest incidence rate for males (103 cases per 100,000 males) ttp://www. ons. gov. uk/ons/rel/cancer-unit/cancer-incidence-and-mortality/2007-2009/stb-cancer-incidence-and-mortality. html The Black report was a document published in 1980 by the Department of Health and Social Security in the United Kingdom, which was the report of the expert committee into health inequality chaired by Sir Douglas Black. It was demonstrated that although overall health had improved since the introduction of the welfare state, there were widespread health inequalities.It also found that the main cause of these inequalities was economic inequality. The result of the black report stated that risk on death increase with lower social classes. People in lower class were more likely to suffer from respiratory disease. Babies that were born to parents in social class V had a higher chance of death in the first month compared with babies of profession al class parents.The report showed that there had continued to be an improvement in health across all the classes, during the first 35 years of the National Health Service but there was still a co-relation between social class, and infant mortality rates, life expectancy and inequalities in the use of medical services The introduction of the NHS intended to present everyone with free healthcare despite of their income and social class status. The general household survey showed that patterns of morbidity were followed to a related class gradient to that of mortality.This showed that people in lower socioeconomic groups reported ill health more compared to those in higher socioeconomic groups. In addition the black report found that working class people did not use health care services often which resulted to them not receiving the care that they required, whereas middle class people used health services frequently and had better care compared to working class people (Jennie Nadioo/J ane Wills/2001) http://sonet. nottingham. ac. uk/rlos/ucel/blackinequalities/Default. html Ethnicity People from minority ethnic groups were found to self-report poor health more frequently and visit their GP more frequently.People from south Asia especially Bangladeshi and Pakistani origins have moderately higher incidence of coronary heart disease and poorer health than other ethnic groups as shown in the graph. There is also a higher prevalence of diagnosed non-insulin dependent diabetes among south Asians and people from the Caribbean, with mortality directly associated with diabetes amongst south Asia migrants around three and a half times that of the general population. Ethnicity refers to: culture, religion, language and history which are all shared by groups of people and are passed on generation by generation.Ethnicity can carry along barriers that can affect health, for example language barrier. People may find it hard to communicate and may find it difficult to explain ho w they are feeling if they are suffering from ill health, this may lead to illness and disease spreading and causing long term health problems. Language and cultural barriers can have major effect on someone’s live, as they will not be able to make full use of health care services. For example Asian women are sometime dependent to seek medical advice from male doctors or they may have problems in speaking English.Some people may be unwilling to seek medical advices as they have suffered from racism or the fear of racism is worrying to them. Diet can bring along factors that can cause health problems. For example someone people may eat food that is high in fat and cholesterol this can lead to ill health if safety measures are not taken. Lifestyle can also cause ill health for example leading an unhealthy lifestyle and not exercising can cause obesity which can lead to a number of illnesses such as coronary heart disease and diabetes. (Eleanor Landridge, 2007) – (Kelly D avis 2010) Social classEven though official statistics must be treated with care, there is overpowering evidence that health and ill-health and life expectancy vary according to social group and especially according to social class. People from higher social class are living longer and enjoying better health than the people from lower social class. (Kelly Davis/2010) The black report was mainly based around social class that middle class and upper class people have better standards of living, quality of life and health than working class and lower class people, as shown in the graph, people from lower class suffer from more illnesses than those in higher class.Today life expectancy at birth remains lower for those in the lower social classes than in the professional classes. Nearly every kind of illness is linked to class. Poverty is the major driver of ill health, and poorer people tend to get sick more often, to be ill for longer and to die younger than richer people. Those who di e younger are people who live on benefits or low wages, who work in unhealthy work places, live in poor workplaces, who live in poor quality housing, and who eat unhealthy food.In modern Britain, lung cancer and stomach cancer occur twice as often among men in manual jobs as among men in professional jobs, and death rates from heart disease and lung cancer, the two biggest causes of premature death, about twice as high for those from manual backgrounds. (Eleanor Landridge, 2007) Gender Gender is also a factor that can affect health. Men and women have different patterns of ill health but males have a higher rate of illnesses. This can be because men and women are expected to have roles which they adapt from society and because of this males are less likely to access routine screening.However women are seen as the carer of the family therefore is able to access them and other health care services. Because of this potential illnesses in women can be identified earlier. As shown in the graph women suffer from more illnesses then men do. Women are more likely to report physical and physiological problems to their GP so the studies that show that women get ill more often then men may not be accurate. The main reason women may be hospitalised is due to pregnancies, child birth, contraception, menopause and menstruation.They also constitute the majority of people suffering from neurosis. Psychosis, dementia and depressive disorders. Because women have higher life expectancy than men they are more likely to use health services longer/ more than me. Even if women do have higher morbidity rates then men or not they are more likely to suffer from cancer, arthritis and rheumatism then men, where as men are more likely to suffer from circulatory diseases and strokes. Life expectancy has gone up for both men and women in the last hundred years but has increased more for women.The main cause of death among men is heart disease, lung cancer, bronchitis, accidents and other vi olent deaths. For women the main causes of death are breast cancer, cervix cancer and uterus cancer also coronary heart disease. Although smoking prevalence has declined dramatically during the past ofur decades, men are still more likely to smoke then women across all ages. In 1974, 51% of men and 41% of women smoked whereas in 2007 these figures have dropped to 22% and 20% respectively. (office of national statistics 2006a, 2009) (Eleanor Landridge, 2007) – (Kelly Davis 2010)